Lunar basalts differ from their Earth counterparts principally in their high iron contents, which typically range from about 17 to 22 wt% FeO. They also possess a wide range of titanium concentrations (present in the mineral ilmenite), [97] [98] ranging from less than 1 wt% TiO 2, to about 13 wt.%. Traditionally, lunar basalts have been classified according to their titanium content, with classes being named high-Ti, low-Ti, and very-low-Ti. Nevertheless, global geochemical maps of titanium obtained from the Clementine mission demonstrate that the lunar maria possess a continuum of titanium concentrations, and that the highest concentrations are the least abundant. [99] The temperature of most types of molten lava ranges from about 800°C (1,470°F) to 1,200°C (2,190°F). [16] depending on the lava's chemical composition. This temperature range is similar to the hottest temperatures achievable with a forced air charcoal forge. [47] Lava is most fluid when first erupted, becoming much more viscous as its temperature drops. [13] Class, Cornelia; Goldstein, Steven L. (August 2005). "Evolution of helium isotopes in the Earth's mantle". Nature. 436 (7054): 1107–1112. Bibcode: 2005Natur.436.1107C. doi: 10.1038/nature03930. PMID 16121171. S2CID 4396462. McBride; Gilmore, eds. (2007). An introduction to the Solar System. Cambridge University Press. p.392. The phenocrysts or porphyritic minerals are not only larger than those of the ground-mass; as the matrix was still liquid when they formed they were free to take perfect crystalline shapes, without interference by the pressure of adjacent crystals. They seem to have grown rapidly, as they are often filled with enclosures of glassy or finely crystalline material like that of the ground-mass . Microscopic examination of the phenocrysts often reveals that they have had a complex history. Very frequently they show layers of different composition, indicated by variations in color or other optical properties; thus augite may be green in the center surrounded by various shades of brown; or they may be pale green centrally and darker green with strong pleochroism (aegirine) at the periphery. [10]

Lava - Wikipedia Lava - Wikipedia

Goldberg, D. S.; Takahashi, T.; Slagle, A. L. (22 July 2008). "Carbon dioxide sequestration in deep-sea basalt". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 105 (29): 9920–9925. Bibcode: 2008PNAS..105.9920G. doi: 10.1073/pnas.0804397105. PMC 2464617. PMID 18626013. Geoff C. Brown; C. J. Hawkesworth; R. C. L. Wilson (1992). Understanding the Earth (2nded.). Cambridge University Press. p.93. ISBN 0-521-42740-1.Tholeiitic basalt is relatively rich in iron and poor in alkali metals and aluminium. [33] Included in this category are most basalts of the ocean floor, most large oceanic islands, [34] and continental flood basalts such as the Columbia River Plateau. [35] Carbon sequestration in basalt has been studied as a means of removing carbon dioxide, produced by human industrialization, from the atmosphere. Underwater basalt deposits, scattered in seas around the globe, have the added benefit of the water serving as a barrier to the re-release of CO 2 into the atmosphere. [134] [135] See also In the feldspars the center is usually richer in calcium than the surrounding layers, and successive zones may often be noted, each less calcic than those within it. Phenocrysts of quartz (and of other minerals), instead of sharp, perfect crystalline faces, may show rounded corroded surfaces, with the points blunted and irregular tongue-like projections of the matrix into the substance of the crystal. It is clear that after the mineral had crystallized it was partly again dissolved or corroded at some period before the matrix solidified. [10]

Volcanic rock - Wikipedia Volcanic rock - Wikipedia

As crystallization was going on while the mass was still creeping forward under the surface of the Earth, the latest formed minerals (in the ground-mass) are commonly arranged in subparallel winding lines that follow the direction of movement (fluxion or fluidal structure)—and larger early minerals that previously crystallized may show the same arrangement. Most lavas fall considerably below their original temperatures before emitted. In their behavior, they present a close analogy to hot solutions of salts in water, which, when they approach the saturation temperature, first deposit a crop of large, well-formed crystals (labile stage) and subsequently precipitate clouds of smaller less perfect crystalline particles (metastable stage). [10] A pāhoehoe flow typically advances as a series of small lobes and toes that continually break out from a cooled crust. It also forms lava tubes where the minimal heat loss maintains a low viscosity. The surface texture of pāhoehoe flows varies widely, displaying all kinds of bizarre shapes often referred to as lava sculpture. With increasing distance from the source, pāhoehoe flows may change into ʻaʻā flows in response to heat loss and consequent increase in viscosity. [24] Experiments suggest that the transition takes place at a temperature between 1,200 and 1,170°C (2,190 and 2,140°F), with some dependence on shear rate. [61] [35] Pahoehoe lavas typically have a temperature of 1,100 to 1,200°C (2,010 to 2,190°F). [16]Los Llanos de Aridane ( Todoque neighbourhood) and El Paso (El Paraíso neighbourhood) on La Palma in the 2021 Cumbre Vieja volcanic eruption [94] [95] [96] Other mechanisms, such as melting from a meteorite impact, are less important today, but impacts during the accretion of the Earth led to extensive melting, and the outer several hundred kilometers of our early Earth was probably an ocean of magma. Impacts of large meteorites in the last few hundred million years have been proposed as one mechanism responsible for the extensive basalt magmatism of several large igneous provinces. [ citation needed] Decompression Walker, G.P.L. (1993). "Basaltic-volcano systems". In Prichard, H.M.; Alabaster, T.; Harris, N.B.W.; Neary, C.R. (eds.). Magmatic Processes and Plate Tectonics. Geological Society Special Publication 76. The Geological Society. pp.3–38. ISBN 978-0-903317-94-8. Silicate lavas are molten mixtures dominated by oxygen and silicon, the most abundant elements of the Earth's crust, with smaller quantities of aluminium, calcium, magnesium, iron, sodium, and potassium and minor amounts of many other elements. [6] Petrologists routinely express the composition of a silicate lava in terms of the weight or molar mass fraction of the oxides of the major elements (other than oxygen) present in the lava. [9]

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Young, Davis A. (2003). Mind Over Magma: The Story of Igneous Petrology. Princeton University Press. p.117. ISBN 0-691-10279-1. Serao, Francesco (1778). Istoria dell' incendio del Vesuvio accaduto nel mese di maggio dell'anno MDCCXXXVII. Naples: Presso Il De Bonis . Retrieved 6 August 2022. Vesuvius Erupts, 1738". Linda Hall Library of Science, Engineering & Technology . Retrieved 6 August 2022. Decompression melting creates the ocean crust at mid-ocean ridges. It also causes volcanism in intraplate regions, such as Europe, Africa and the Pacific sea floor. There, it is variously attributed either to the rise of mantle plumes (the "Plume hypothesis") or to intraplate extension (the "Plate hypothesis"). [40] Effects of water and carbon dioxideDietterich, Hannah; Cashman, Katherine; Rust, Alison; Lev, Einat (2015). "Diverting lava flows in the lab". Nature Geoscience. 8 (7): 494–496. Bibcode: 2015NatGe...8..494D. doi: 10.1038/ngeo2470. a b Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. (1996). Petrology: igneous, sedimentary, and metamorphic (2nded.). New York: W.H. Freeman. p.185. ISBN 0-7167-2438-3.

Rock types - The Earth and atmosphere - KS3 Chemistry - BBC Rock types - The Earth and atmosphere - KS3 Chemistry - BBC

Edwards, Katrina J.; Bach, Wolfgang; Rogers, Daniel R. (April 2003). "Geomicrobiology of the Ocean Crust: A Role for Chemoautotrophic Fe-Bacteria". Biological Bulletin. 204 (2): 180–185. doi: 10.2307/1543555. JSTOR 1543555. PMID 12700150. S2CID 1717188. Holyoke Basalt". USGS Mineral Resources Program. United States Geological Survey . Retrieved 13 August 2020. Keszthelyi, L.; McEwen, A. S.; Phillips, C. B.; Milazzo, M.; Geissler, P.; Turtle, E. P.; Radebaugh, J.; Williams, D. A.; Simonelli, D. P.; Breneman, H. H.; Klaasen, K. P.; Levanas, G.; Denk, T. (25 December 2001). "Imaging of volcanic activity on Jupiter's moon Io by Galileo during the Galileo Europa Mission and the Galileo Millennium Mission". Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets. 106 (E12): 33025–33052. Bibcode: 2001JGR...10633025K. doi: 10.1029/2000JE001383.The following subsection is about the types of lava flow. For the sculpture of a god from the Pacific island of Rurutu, see Statue of A'a from Rurutu. Glowing ʻaʻā flow front advancing over pāhoehoe on the coastal plain of Kīlauea in Hawaii, United States Wilson, F. H. (1985). "The Meshik Arc – an eocene to earliest miocene magmatic arc on the Alaska Peninsula". Alaska Division of Geological & Geophysical Surveys Professional Report. 88: PR 88. doi: 10.14509/2269.